The Hard Hand of War, Chapters 1-6

Looting in Fredericksburg, VA

According to Mark Grimesly, author of The Hard Hand of War, the Civil War marked a progression in the hardness of the North's policy toward the Confederacy.  The Union began the war attempting to remain as gentle with the citizens of the Confederacy as possible.  As time went on, Grimesly argues, guerrilla warfare in the South, the defeat of Union troops in battles, and the lack of the previously assumed Unionist sentiment in the South drove the Union commanders, with the blessing of Lincoln, to enact harder policy in dealing with the Confederacy.  Although the policy became more severe, the way the Union dealt with civilians in the South "was seldom the wanton, wholesale fury of legend," although that did sometimes take place (Grimesley 2).

The North started the war with a strategy that attempted to exempt Southern civilians from the troubles of war.  The Lincoln administration assumed that most Southerners were not for secession.  When the strategy of the North shifted to a harder war, the goal was still not to completely destroy the South, but to do whatever it took to win the war.  Between these two phases was a pragmatic phase that was less strategic than the other two.  Strategy was left much up to individual Union generals.

It was widely believed by the North, including Lincoln, that the South had been led astray by a wealthy and powerful few, and most of those in the Confederacy remained loyal to the Union.  If this was the case, it seemed counterproductive to enter the South with guns blazing, wreaking havoc.  The assumption that most Southerners were lukewarm was a misconception.  Still, the Union used a policy of conciliation with Confederate civilians for the first part of the war.  With this policy, the Union hoped to end the conflict without producing an excess of bitterness in the South.  As the war raged on, the North had to reconsider this policy.

Both Winfield Scott and George B. McClellan shared a desire for conciliatory policy.  Scott was known for his diplomacy and restraint and it had served him well in the past.  Scott hoped to avoid attack and bloodshed.  Many in the North quickly grew tired of the delay.  Lincoln decided offensive action should be taken.  Unfortunately for the Union, McDowell's forces were beaten at Manassas Junction.  In light of this, Lincoln called on George McClellan who had similar views as Scott but acknowledged that the North needed to take action and could not afford to wait.  He hoped to crush the Confederacy in one campaign as to not strengthen the will of the rebels.  McClellan succeeded Scott as General-in-Chief.

The initial policy of conciliation faced two main challenges  One was the existence of a competing policy in Missouri.  The other challenge was between the generals and the soldiers.  Not everyone shared Scott and McClellan's desire for a conciliatory policy.  Even though Missouri remained with the Union throughout the war, it was often treated like enemy territory.  Conciliation was attempted there and quickly abandoned.  The individuals responsible for this change in policy were Nathaniel Lyon and Francis P. Blair, Jr.  They remained concerned with the state of Missouri's loyalty.  They held civilians responsible for guerrilla warfare, which continued in Missouri until the end of the war.

Most Union soldiers found the conciliatory policy hard to swallow.  Conciliation partially failed because of the reluctance of the average soldier to embrace it.  Some opposed it out of principle and others believed it was not practical.  Soldiers often look apart fences for lumber, forced the local population to feed them, killed and ate their animals, and stayed in their homes without permission.  These sort of events did little to harm the Confederate economy, but they made the conciliation policy less affective and harder to maintain.

During the first Union occupations of the South, they attempted to keep violence on the battlefield exclusively.  In the west, the policy tended to be different.  Brigadier General Ulysses S. Grant saw the conciliatory policy to be ineffective.  He believed the population in Missouri especially were not responding well to the policy.  Major General Henry W. Halleck found the same to be true.  Missouri is where a new pragmatic policy likely began.  This policy tried to keep the civilians on the sidelines as much as possible.  Adherents to this policy supported Unionists and actively punished secessionists.  Those who supported the Confederacy could expect to have their property taken.  The policy was carried into Tennessee and Mississippi.  Major General Benjamin F. Butler maintained a similar policy.  He also preferred to make dramatic examples of some citizens to demonstrate that they were determined to maintain order.  The policy of conciliation was used more often and was more effective int he east.  In early 1862, the policy of conciliation seemed to be working wherever it was used.

Everyone's focus shifted to McClellan's campaign against Richmond.  McClellan was not successful and one of the first things to suffer was the conciliatory policy.  Many from the North understood that they were fighting to bring the Union back together and one thing that would help is to avoid any unwanted bitterness on the rebel's side.  Still, some of the violence they were witnessing and experiencing from the Confederacy caused the Northerners to want to respond in violence.  Many Northerners gave up the hope they had held that their may have been Union sentiment in the South.  By the end of Summer 1862, it had been almost completely abandoned.  The Confiscation Act helped to end it.

Major General John Pope exemplified this abandon of conciliation policy.  He issued orders holding civilians responsible for damaged railroad lines and shots taken at Union soldiers.  The orders allowed for people suspected of those kinds of activities to be shot without trial.  Anyone was considered to be disloyal to the Union in the North were forced to go South.  Lincoln supported this harder policy toward the Confederacy.  Much of the population of the North seemed to rejoice in the idea of harder war, although many were not ready to see it be put into practice yet.  They were not ready to see Union troops act in complete disregard for the property and rights of the Southern civilians.  McClellan was not impressed by the new orders and was determined to continue with the policy of conciliation.

In reality, at this point, the orders were more used to scare Confederate civilians.  No one was actually shot or arrested because of the orders.  The orders did bring a swell of raiding.  In response, Pope issued a directive to clear up any confusion or exploitation regarding the order.

Soon after, Robert E. Lee made his way into Maryland in hopes of obtaining them as an ally.  McClellan's army was able to force them to retreat back to Virginia.  Lincoln took this as enough of a victory to issue his Emancipation Proclamation.  The Proclamation officially ended whatever was left of the policy of conciliation.  It also incensed the Confederacy and increased their will to fight.

Grimsley argues that the main reason the policy of conciliation was abandoned is the Union loss on the Peninsula campaign.  Many feared the war would go on indefinitely if a change in policy was not made.  The defeat was used as an excuse to expand the war's goals by Radicals.  It also "proved right" those who did not support the policy of conciliation in the first place.

Although conciliation had been abandoned, commanders did not immediately adopt a hard war policy.  Most still wanted their troops to have a sense of order and honor.  For practical reasons, it was important for the troops going through the countryside not to bleed it dry in a disorganized fashion.  This would negatively affect any troops coming after them.  It was also important for most manpower not to be used in foraging, but on the battlefield.

A pragmatic policy began to be embraced.  The extent of the harness of the policy depended on the cooperation of civilians in the area and the discretion of the individual commanders.  Generals had different ideas about when and how much foraging was appropriate.  Generals in the West were quicker than those in the East to adopt policies of authorized foraging.  In both the East and West, known secessionists were typically held responsible for the guerrilla warfare.  The purpose of pragmatic policy was not to devastate the south, but to control civilians so war could be waged on the battlefield.  It made the South a more definite enemy and set the stage for a harder policy.

Emancipation affected the South, and the United States as a whole, far greater than foraging or pillaging.  Emancipation was a military strategy, but it was also political and moral.  The Confederacy certainly had a military advantage in their slaves.  Some slaves worked directly for the war effort.  Others made it possible for more white men to fight by keeping the economy running.  If slaves were emancipated, they could be used in the war effort on the side of the Union.  This was one of the most important parts of Lincoln's Proclamation.

More than a military strategy, it was Lincoln's personal views and the strength of the anti-slavery movement that also was a driving force of emancipation.  As much as the emancipation was a military strategy, it was also a symbol of Northern resolve.  The Union would do whatever it took to eliminate the rebellion and bring the rebel states back into the Union.

This Fiery Trial, IV-V

In March 1862, Lincoln wanted Congress to offer federal funds to any states that agreed to gradual emancipation.  He believed gradual emancipation would be best for everyone.  Congress did pass a resolution that would give states financial support if they would agree to gradual emancipation.  The state could use this money at its discretion for any inconveniences caused by emancipation.  In a speech to the border state representatives he predicted that if the border states adopted emancipation it would cause the Confederacy to "see, definitely and certainly, that, in no event, will the states you represent ever join their proposed Confederacy, and they can not, much longer maintain the contest" (Gienapp Kindle Locations 1741-1742).  He hoped this would bring the war to a quick end.  The border states rejected the proposal.

Lincoln knew he was not experienced in war strategy.  As his experience grew, his confidence in his strategies also grew.  Lincoln was also willing to admit when his strategies were wrong.  In a letter on July 13, 1863, to Ulysses S. Grant, Lincoln wrote: "I now wish to make the personal acknowledgment that you were right, and I was wrong" (Gienapp Kindle Locations 2295-2296).

Lincoln and Union general, McClellan, often disagreed on war strategy.  McClellan sometimes ignored Lincoln’s orders.  McClellan was slow moving and defensive in strategy. He also reported that the number of men with him was lower than what he actually had with him and Lincoln called him out on it.  Lincoln tried to make him understand how important public opinion was and that the public demanded action. McClellan never learned this lesson until it was too late.  On April 9, 1862, in a letter to McClellan, Lincoln wrote: “once more let me tell you, it is indispensable to you that you strike a blow.” (Gienapp Kindle Locations 1695-1696)

McClellan often sent overly pessimistic reports to Lincoln.  Lincoln was typically able to remain level-headed in light of these reports.  After the Battle of Antietam, Lincoln wanted McClellan to pursue the Confederate army but McClellan moved so slowly that Lee and his army escaped.  McClellan was relieved of his position as commander for this reason.  For the rest of the war, Lincoln's primary strategy in Virginia was destroying Lee's army.

Lincoln wrote that he would be happy to receive the Confederate states back into the Union with full forgiveness, but he would not give them up.  His goal was "to save it the shortest way under the Constitution" (Gienapp Kindle Location 1871).  While some wanted Lincoln to focus on a goal of emancipation, he made it clear that his primary goal was bringing the Union back together.  In an August 1863 letter to newspaper editor Horace Greenly, Lincoln wrote: "If I could save the Union without freeing any slave I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone I would also do that" (Gienapp Kindle Locations 1874-1876).  Anything he did in regards to slavery, he did it wit the goal of reunification in mind.

In 1862, Lincoln was interested in African Americans started a colony somewhere else after they were liberated.  He believed that when slaves were granted their freedom they would be at a disadvantage to white men and it would be better for them to start over somewhere else.  African Americans were not interested in colonization.  Gradually, Lincoln gave this idea up.

A significant turning point in the Civil War was the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation.  After the Union victory at Antietam, Lincoln issued the preliminary proclamation on September 22, 1862.  The seceded states were given 100 days to rejoin the Union.  Those who did not rejoin, the slaves in those areas still in rebellion would be "forever free" (Gienapp Kindle Location 1899).  Lincoln stated that "Without slavery the rebellion could never have existed; without slavery it could not continue" (Gienapp Kindle Location 2018).

Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863.  He was very confident that he was making the right decision.  He stood by his decision in a letter to a Union general: "After the commencement of hostilities I struggled nearly a year and a half to get along without touching the 'institution'; and when finally I conditionally determined to touch it, I gave a hundred days fair notice of my purpose, to all the States and people, within which time they could have turned it wholly aside, by simply again becoming good citizens of the United States" (Gienapp Kindle Locations 2110-2112).

During the war, the Union responded aggressively to criticism of the war.  Lincoln made the following accusation: "he who dissuades one man from volunteering, or induces one soldier to desert, weakens the Union cause as much as he who kills a union soldier in battle" (Gienapp Kindle Location 2213).  On being criticized that his war policies were unconstitutional, Lincoln claimed "these provisions of the constitution have no application to the case we have in hand" (Gienapp Kindle Locations 2190-2191).  He was happy to explain his reasoning behind war regulations regarding anti-war sentiment plainly.  He believed the safety of the Union required that habeas corpus be suspended and that the Constitution allowed for this in cases of rebellion.

This Fiery Trial, I-III

Abraham Lincoln attempted to enter in politics when he was twenty-three years old, with little education and no experience.  In his letter to the people of Sangamo County, he admitted that he is young and unknown.  He expressed trust in the people and the decision they would make whether or not to elect him.  This time they chose not to elect him, but he did win a significant number of votes.  Although he had limited education, he believed that education was important.

In 1834, Lincoln was elected and in 1936, he ran for reelection.  To the editor of the Sangamo Journal, he announced that he believed all white people should be able to vote as long as they paid taxes, including females.  Lincoln believed government played a critical role in organized society and announced that he himself would be governed entirely by the will of the people.  What people could do for themselves, he said, should not be handled by the government were acquainted.

In 1841, Lincoln broke off his engagement with Mary Todd and suffered from depression.  A couple years later, they were reunited and married.  In a letter to his wife in April 1848 he teases her: "I am afraid you will get so well, and fat, and young, as to be wanting to marry again. Tell Louisa I want her to watch you a little for me"(Gienapp Kindle Locations 371-372).  Lincoln was estranged from his father.  When his father was close to death, Lincoln did not visit him, nor did he attend the funeral.

Lincoln was uncomfortable with organized religion and never joined a church.  He did not deny the truth of the scriptures but he never spoke too extensively on his beliefs.  He was a private individual and did not tend to express his emotions.  Upon leaving Springfield to head to Washington, he broke this mold.  He spoke to the crowd and revealed "No one, not in my situation, can appreciate my feeling of sadness at this parting" (Gienapp Kindle Locations 1242-1243).

Slavery became the central issue of Lincoln's political career in 1854.  Lincoln was anti-slavery, but critical of abolitionists.  He wrote "that the promulgation of abolition doctrines tends rather to increase than to abate [slavery's] evils" (Gienapp Kindle Locations 187-188).  Lincoln believed slavery was an injustice that dehumanized African Americans and that made the United States look like hypocrites.

Lincoln opposed the Kansas-Nebraska Act.  He accused Stephen Douglas in a senatorial debate of "blowing out the moral lights around us" (Gienapp Kindle Locations 811-812) if slavery were to be allowed in the new territories if they became states.  He was not in favor of outlawing slavery where it already existed, but he believed it should not be allowed to extend any further than it already existed.  He did, however, think that slavery would ultimately be outlawed in all of the United States, which is what the founding fathers wanted to eventually take place.

While Lincoln believed slavery was morally wrong, he did not believe in the equality of the races.  He was "in favor of having the superior position assigned to the white race" (Gienapp Kindle Location 827).

Lincoln had strong beliefs about the important of keeping the law.  He also was a firm believer in diligence and against procrastination.  He believed free labor was the best option which allowed people to benefit from the work they did.  He also thought that labor and education were compatible.

Lincoln thought the Republican party should try to do everything they could do to work with the Confederacy and not respond out of passion.  But he believed the rebels could not be appeased.  He stated that "Even though the southern people will not so much as listen to us, let us calmly consider their demands, and yield to them if, in our deliberate view of our duty, we possibly can" (Gienapp Kindle Locations 1137-1138).  The Confederacy would only be happy if the Republicans stopped calling slavery wrong, which they would not do.

After Lincoln was elected, he wrote to assure the South that he would not interfere with slavery in the South, directly or indirectly.  In his inaugural address, he firmly denied that a state had the right to secede, calling it "anarchy" (Gienapp Kindle Location 1326).  He pledged to bring the Union back together and believed it could be done without bloodshed.  He stated that there was no conflict unless the Confederacy was the aggressor.

After the attack on Fort Sumpter, Lincoln called for 75,000 troops to serve for three months, but did not declare war on the Confederacy.  He called citizens of the Union "to favor, facilitate and aid this effort to maintain the honor, the integrity, and the existence of our National Union" (Gienapp Kindle Locations 1381-1382).

Lincoln felt sure that the government of Maryland would attempt to secede.  He authorized the Union General Winfield Scott to do whatever was necessary to keep Maryland from seceding.  In parts of Maryland, Lincoln suspended the writ of habeas corpus.  He justified these actions in a speech to Congress.

What Caused The Civil War?: Refection on Ayers

In his article, What Caused the Civil War?, Edward L. Ayers unpacks the different views regarding, as the name suggests, the cause of the Civil War.  He recounts an episode of the Simpson's where an individual taking his citizenship test attempts a lengthy explanation of the Civil War and is told by the official to "just say slavery."

While this explanation is somewhat accurate, historians are not satisfied with it.  There are two approaches to correcting faulty thinking regarding the cause of the Civil War.  The fundamentalists, who emphasize the conflict between free labor and slave labor, point to a struggle over the future of the United States and a struggle between slavery and freedom.  The revisionists tend to emphasize slavery less and focus more on events and political structures, like the fragmentation of the Democratic party and the election of Abraham Lincoln.  In both approaches, slavery plays a role, but much more predominately in the fundamentalist argument.

The Civil War was caused by small steps that led to big, unforeseen consequences.  Slavery was a large part of the problem.  But it was not slavery that caused the Civil War.  Confusion and misunderstanding between the North and South played a role.  The collision of politics and slavery steered the country to war, with print being a catalyst.  The action and reaction of people in the North and South to these events brought on the Civil War.

History does not have simple answers for why something happens and simple answers should be avoided.  We need to understand the society which is being studied as a whole.