This Fiery Trial, VI-VII

In the beginning of Lincoln's speeches and writings, he was weary to add emancipation to the Union's war aims and to use black soldiers in the war effort.  As the Civil War raged on, his views evolved significantly.  They changed so considerably that, by the end of the war, he was boldly calling for permanant emancipation, an anti-slavery amendment, and limited suffrage for African Americans.

Lincoln faced criticism regarding his emancipation proclamation and use of African Americans as soldiers.  He stood by these decisions.  He used the examples of Maryland and Missouri to explain how much opinion regarding emancipation had changed: "Maryland, and Missouri, neither of which three years ago would tolerate any restraint upon the extension of slavery into new territories, only dispute now as to the best mode of removing it within their own limits" (Gienapp Kindle Locations 2541-2542).  He argued that he had done nothing more than what the Constitution allowed him to do and reiterated that the proclamation was a war strategy to hurt the Confederacy.  He heralded the use of former slaves in the war effort as a huge success.  African Americans could "bear arms in the ranks; thus giving the double advantage of taking so much labor from the insurgent cause" (Gienapp Kindle Locations 2543-2544).  He went on to say that the new recruits had been tested and proven themselves to be good soldiers.

In regards to reconstruction, Lincoln made it clear that the emancipation of African Americans would stand.  Having slaves serve as soldiers by promising them their freedom, then taking that away, would "be a cruel and an astounding breach of faith" (Gienapp Kindle Location 2564).  Lincoln was willing to look forward and not backward regarding the rebel states.  He was willing to grant "a full pardon... to them and each of them, with restoration of all rights of property, except as to slaves" as long as they were willing to take an oath of allegiance to the United States (Gienapp Kindle Locations 2600-2601).  Lincoln, unlike some members of Congress, believed the oath should be reasonable as to encourage people to take it.  In Lincoln's prescribed oath, the former rebels must "faithfully support, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States, and the union of the States thereunder; and... abide by and faithfully support all acts of Congress [and the President] passed during the existing rebellion with reference to slaves" (Gienapp Kindle Locations 2604-2605).  Lincoln wanted to require one-tenth of all people in a state to take the oath before a state government could be reestablished and would be protected and supported by the United States.  He agreed to be flexible in working with Congress on reconstruction.

Lincoln recommended limited black suffrage for those who had fought in the war and "the very intelligent" (Gienapp Kindle Location 2634).  Although this was his recommendation, he did not require it of the new state governments.  He also believed an anti-slavery amendment should be passed and "the sooner the better" (Gienapp Kindle Locations 2867-2868).  When the amendment was passed he called it a "great moral victory" (Gienapp Kindle Location 2952).

Lincoln believed "If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong" (Gienapp Kindle Location 2641).  Before the Civil War, he kept this as his personal belief, but did not push for or have plans to push for emancipation.  He did not believe at the start of the war that "domestic slavery would be much affected" (Gienapp Kindle Location 2673) or that colored troops would be used.  As the war went on and emancipation was adopted as a war strategy, Lincoln's views regarding the future of slavery morphed into more extreme and long-lasting plans.

Turned Inside Out: Reflection on Wilkeson

In the Introduction to Turned Inside Out: Recollections of a Private Soldier in the Army of the Potomac, James M. McPherson argues that "[t]he Civil War was the biggest and most fearful experience that any generation of Americans has known" (Wilkeson v) and that it changed society permanantly in both the North and the South.  The Civil War stole the lives of more than 620,000 soldiers.  He applauds Frank Wilkeson's memoir as one of the first and most accurate recorded by a private soldier.  Wilkeson focused on the reality of the war, with its good and bad moments, and for the most part chose not to exaggerate in his descriptions of either.  McPherson remarks that Wilkeson sometimes "leans too far to the dark and ugly side, producing distortions of his own" (Wilkeson viii), but his memoir if by far one of the most reliable.

In 1863, Wilkeson joined the army at fifteen years old.  He was one of the few to serve as a volunteer in the last two years of the war.  He served for seven weeks with the Army of the Potomac in a period of time with some of the most intense fighting of the war.  Wilkeson wrote his memoir for the purpose of describing the Civil War from the perspective of a private soldier.  The literary works about the war were largely written by generals before his.  In Wilkeson's opinion, these generals had reputations to repair and therefore their writings cannot fully be trusted.  He believed enlisted men could provide the most accurate descriptions of the war and encouraged others to write their own memoirs.

When Wilkeson enlisted, he was surprised at the way he was received.  Those in command treated him like he was a criminal.  This was largely because of the epidemic of bounty-jumpers that plagued the army in the last two years of the war.  Wilkeson looked down on these men calling them "murderers and thieves" (Wilkeson 3).  He mentions other cowards he comes across, including a man who shot his own foot to get out of fighting.  The surgeons were much less sympathetic to this wounded man then others who had truly been wounded in battle.  The young man unfortunately woke up from surgery and "found that his leg was off" (Wilkeson 150), which was certainly an unintended consequence to his cowardice.

Life as a soldier was often rewarding for Wilkeson but wrought with hardships.  Traveling initially to the front, Wilkeson remarked on the disorganization and chaos.  Men gambled, got drunk, and stole from other men.  At the start of the campaign, Wilkeson recalled advice he received from a more seasoned soldier.  The soldier told him to pack light, focusing on food and tobacco.  When they were marching, he was only to pick up extra food or tobacco, not clothing or blankets.  He also advised him to fill his canteen whenever possible and not to straggle.  The Union soldiers often did not get enough sleep and were hungry much of the time.  Wilkeson remembered "the lack of good food and loss of sleep told hard on me" (Wilkeson 147).  After the fighting, the men were reminded that this war was not an adventure or fun, but it was "a savage encounter with desperate adversaries, who dealt death and grievous wounds with impartial hands" (Wilkeson 86).  The fighting physically weakened them and "unstrung our nerves" (Wilkeson 97).  Dead soldiers were usually left on the battlefield and buried quickly after the fighting was over.

The title of the book references the pockets of the dead soldiers lying on the battlefield.  Their pockets were turned inside out as the living stole what was in the dead mens pockets along with their bags.  Wilkeson recalled: "The dead men lay where they fell.  Their haversacks and cartridges had been taken from their bodies.  The battle-field ghouls had rifled their pockets.  I saw no dead man that night whose pockets had not been turned inside out" (Wilkeson 67).  Wilkeson admitted to doing this himself at times as well as stealing from the living.  He confessed that once before going back into battle "I equipped myself with a plug of tobacco and two canteens filled with water - never mind where I got them" (Wilkeson 69).  Wilkeson acknowledged that he stole tobacco, haversacks, and at one point a "sheep, which I had met in a field near Bowling Green" (Wilkeson 142).  Wilkeson remembered that the troops, himself included, raided tobacco barns, killed sheep and chickens, and stole food from farmhouses.

The men seemed to be high in spirits when something worthwhile was coming up, like marching to a new location or a flank movement.  Monotony, drills, and endless fighting seemed to discourage them.  Wilkeson remembered "joyfully" packing up "[a]t once understanding that a flank movement was at hand" (Wilkeson 151).  When marching to The Battle of the Wilderness, Wilkeson remarked that there was "the sound of exultant cheering" (Wilkeson 43).  Wilkeson himself was eager to fight.  In the Battle of the Wilderness, his was the reserve artillery, but he was anxious to see the battle.  He goes to check it out, knowing how dangerous it is.  Eventually, he picks up a musket and starts fighting as if he were an infantryman.

Wilkeson was surprised how quickly news travelled through the army.  He recalled that men would wander around the camps at night, going from fire to fire, bringing and looking for news.  Wilkeson called them the "army news-gatherers" (Wilkeson 54).  Rumors spread wildly and were often correct.  Wilkeson mentioned hearing one rumor repeated over fifty times one night that Meade had advised Grant to retreat after the Battle of the Wilderness.  He also recalled hearing an exciting rumor that enemy plans and numbers were found in the coat of a dead Confederate soldier.  Most of the information the soldiers received was from "prisoners whom they captured, from fellow-soldiers serving in the calvary, from negroes, and above all from the 'news-gatherers' who walked the battle-lines in the night" (Wilkeson 108)

The soldiers also like to study maps, strategize, and guess what the next move was and whether it would be successful.  Wilkeson argued that the enlisted men were skilled and accurate in their military reasoning and they could usually accurately judge the state of the campaigns.  One night the men sat up for hours studying maps "earnestly endeavoring to fathom Grant's plans" (Wilkeson 100).

Grant's leadership was for the most part welcomed by the Army of the Potomac because the men believed he would be more aggressive than his predecessors.  Wilkeson remembered hearing one man assert that Grant "cannot be weaker or more inefficient than the generals who have wasted the lives of our comrades during the past three years" (Wilkeson 37).  When Grant came in command of the Army of the Potomac, the men were ready to be led to victory or defeat and most just wanted the war to end.  Grant brought more recruits and firmer regulation and discipline.  When the campaign began, men were high in spirits and ready to go.  The Army of the Potomac had "longed for a fighting general - one who would fight, and fight, and fight" (Wilkeson 88), and with Grant, they got one.

Wilkeson seemed to have animosity toward many of the generals.  He believed they were lazy and did not fight with their troops like they should.  He sometimes doubted their ability to accurately judge the state of a battle or campaign.  He mentioned being worried at times "that Grant would keep sending us to the slaughter" (Wilkeson 123).  He criticized the generals for procrastinating on flank movements.  He denounced Generals Winfield Scott Hancock and William F. Smith for "dawdling the night away" (Wilkeson 172) when sensitive information regarding Confederate positions had been found.  He also criticized the amount of Union generals who lost their lives, arguing if they were doing their jobs correctly more would have been lost.  Wilkeson explained "[w]e knew the fighting generals and we respected them, and we knew the cowards and despised them" (Wilkeson 185).  The lack of fighting on the part of the generals, Wilkeson argued, was one of the biggest demoralizers of the Army of the Potomac.

Wilkeson often noted the poverty he saw among the Confederate soldiers and that it was especially evident "by the clothing and equipment of her dead" (Wilkeson 125).  He was impressed that despite their poverty, they fought "like men of purely American blood"(Wilkeson 70).  This shows that while Wilkeson fought for the purpose of reunification, he admired the Confederate soldiers and still considered them brothers.  He described them as skilled fighters who could be "deadly accurate" (Wilkeson 71).  Wilkeson never expressed in his writings bitterness or hatred for the Confederacy or its citizens.  He often applauded their courage and competence.

Despite the animosity between the North and the South, Wilkeson described moments of kindness between the two sides.  Wounded men would help other wounded men, despite their allegiance, to safely.  Wilkeson illustrated a touching scene where two soldiers, one Union and the other Confederate, were "drinking in turn out of a Union canteen, as they lay behind a tree" (Wilkeson 73).  He also recalled honorable Confederate soldiers who in one instance "understood what was being done and ceased to shoot" (Wilkeson 138) when a Union soldier ran into the line of fire to rescue another wounded soldier.  Wilkeson described "an unwritten code of honor among the infantry that forbade the shooting of men while attending to the imperative calls of nature" (Wilkeson 121).  Wilkeson himself once shared food with lost Confederate soldiers in the woods.  These exceptions show the humanity soldiers still have when they are fighting one another.

Wilkeson argued that the Union made two large mistakes during the Civil War.  The first was calling for volunteers to fight.  He believed that a draft should have happened sooner.  That way, the end of the war would not have been so wrought with bounty-jumpers and cowards.  The second mistake he saw was in the appointment of generals.  He argued that appointing mainly West Point graduates was a mistake because they were never soldiers themselves and were not fit to command soldiers.  He further goes on to say that West Point should be shut down.  He placed the blame for the war being drawn out as long as it was firmly on the shoulders of those West Point generals.

Divided Houses: Gender and The Civil War (Chapters 7, 11, and 12)

Acting Her Part: Narratives of Union Women Spies

Lyde Cullen Sizer

Woman during the Civil War sometimes acted as spies both for the North and the Confederacy. Female spies during the Civil War were thrilled to be able to play a part in helping their side.  Women smuggled weapons, medicine, and messages.  Women were much less likely, especially at the beginning of the war, to be searched by men.  Messages were written on buttons and wound up in women's hair.

Newspapers circulated stories about women spies, some true and some false.  These stories allowed women to challenge their gender role in the time period.  According to Sizer, they represent women's "ability to adapt to and to excel at an unusual test of courage and patriotism" (Sizer 117).

These spies ranged from women who used their femininity as a weapon to those who dressed up as men and concealed their gender.  Pauline Cushman, her story narrated by herself and other biographers, was been found to be an authentic union spy.  She narrated her story in The Romance of the Great Rebellion.  Life of Paula Cushman, Celebrated Spy and Scout was written by Ferdinand L. Sarmiento in 1865.  Cushman was an actress who was challenging gender roles before the outbreak of the Civil War.  One of her missions was to go behind enemy lines and investigate Braxton Bragg's base to find out about him and other Confederate generals.  She used her femininity and attractiveness to visit various camps with generals and officers under the guise she had been banished to the South and was searching for her brother, who was a Confederate soldier.  She was captured and sentenced to death, but was rescued by Union troops.  She desired to establish herself as a heroic figure after the war.

Union Spy Pauline Cushman

S. Emma Edmonds was one such women that dressed as a man and at first, fought as a soldier in the war and later became a spy.  Edmonds also played the role of nurse during the Civil War.  When the war broke out, she enlisted in the army as a man, under the name "Frank Thompson".  She worked as a field nurse.  She later desired to take on a more ambitious role and became a spy.  She not only dressed as a man at times, but also used other disguises, like a slave or an Irish peddler.  She was forced to put away her uniform and other disguises when she became sick with malaria.

Union Soldier, Spy, and Nurse S. Emma Edmonds

Harriet Tubman, an African American spy, was well-known and used by the United States government.  She had been spying for twenty years before the Civil War began.  She had escaped from her master from Maryland and went to Philadelphia.  She returned many times and successfully rescued 300 to 400 people from the bondage of slavery.  She was often sent across lines during the Civil War as a spy to bring back information about the positions and conditions of enemy troops.  She also assisted in the efforts to persuade slaves to trust the Union troops who were coming in.  She did not desire fame or to be placed in a heroic position.

Abolitionist and Union Spy Harriet Tubman

These women all played roles in redefining womanhood in the mid-nineteenth century by taking on roles normally assumed by men.  They were strong, smart, and courageous and paint a more complete picture of women's roles during the Civil War.

"Since the War Broke Out": The Marriage of Kate and William McLure

Joan Cashin

Confederate Family

Scholars know little about how relationships between men and women in marriage changed during the Civil War.  Some scholars believe women's roles changed very little while others object that the war gave women more opportunities for activities outside of the home.

The marriage of one Southern couple, William and Kate McClure of South Carolina, gives us some clarity as to what life may have been like for married couples in the South during the war.  William McClure served in the Confederate army and Kate stayed on their plantation.  There was conflict as to who would run the plantation - Kate, the white overseers, or male relatives.  Kate began to make decisions about the plantation, which William was not happy about.

When Kate and William married, it did not seem to be an exciting occasion, nor did it seem she was in love with him. There does seem to be evidence that Kate gradually fell in love with William.  They had eight children and maintained a typical marriage for the time period in which William made decisions and Kate followed his lead.  He ran the plantation while she took care of the children.  William was a radical secessionist and believed the North would be easily beaten.  Kate seemed to agree with her husband's political views.

Typically in the South, the wives faced more changes and hardships than the husband's who went off into the army. In 1861, William left the plantation in the hands of a new overseer, B.F. Holmes.  Kate purchased many of the plantation's supplies hat September and often relayed messaged to the overseer.  William was impressed with her capability to help run the plantation. Kate relied on a slave named Jeff to help her. Kate and Holmes sometimes received contradictory instructions, which created some tension.  Kate believed Holmes was making mistakes, not planting enough food and planting too much cotton.  By the end of 1862, Holmes was fired.  Kate put Jeff in charge of food crops and the livestock and expanded her own responsibilities.

William was not comfortable with his wife running the plantation alone.  One of Kate's in-laws hired a new overseer, Mabery, in early 1863. Mabery was not doing a satisfactory job and Kate's responsibilities continued to increase.  When Maybery's contract was renewed, Kate was furious.  The conflict came to a head in December 1864.  Maybery became involved in a sexual relationship with one of the slaves.  He attacked the slave's husband one night, who ran to Kate for help.  In January 1865, Mabery disappeared, although it is not known if he was fired or quit.  Kate was in charge of the plantation for the remainder of the war and ran it with Jeff's assistance.

William hired a free black female to work as his cook and laundress. Kate suspected William might be sleeping with her and expressed disproval of the hire.  William made it clear to his wife that he would do whatever he saw fit.

William McClure never believed in his wife's ability to run the plantation.  Kate's confidence in herself increased greatly during the war.  It is unknown what, if any, long-term changes came to the McClure house and to their marriage.  They did remain married for the rest of their lives.

The Children of Jubilee: African American Children in Wartime

Peter Bardaglio

Slave Children

One important and overlooked aspect of the Civil War is its affect on enslaved children during the war and its later affects on their adult outlooks.  How did they see the war and their condition during it as well as after?

Parents of enslaved children had little control over the condition and protection of them.  Children still had respect for their parents and most times maintained a relationship with them.  One of the hardest lessons a slave child had to learn was how helpless they were in protecting their family members.  The child often saw two different sides to a parent - the one on display for the master and the one they saw in the slave quarters.  Parents were often hard on their children in order to exercise their control on them and also prove to the slaveholders the authority they had on their own children.

The mother of a slave child had more influence over the development over their personality than the father did, although the father did play a role.  Slave masters sometimes displayed their authority over the fathers by dividing families using the slave trade.  When a child was born, after a month or so, the mother returned to the field and an elderly slave took care of the young children.  The mother had little time to care for and nurture their new babies.

Many slave babies did not survive infancy.  If the child did survive, they did experience some measure of childhood, playing and exploring.  They often played with the white children who lived on the plantation.  Some of the games they played displayed the children had a clear understanding of their condition.  At the end of the day, they shared a meal with their parents.  At the age of five or six, children were given chores.  They entered the fields around ten or twelve.  This entrance into labor was often distressing.  They were rudely awakened by their position and were often shocked by the severing of their friendships with the white children.

The outbreak of the Civil War awakened hope for a different life among slave children.  They wanted to know all they could about the war.  They would often eavesdrop on their parents conversations about what what happening.  This also changed the games the children would play to those that mirrored the conflict.

Life changed for slave children when the war broke out.  As the white men went off to war and slave men left the plantation, the women and children's workloads increased.  They also were sometimes taken further south as their masters tried to get away from Union troops.  Sometimes women and children were left behind.  The impressment of black male slaves by both the Union and the Confederacy disrupted the lives of the children.

Life became unpredictable.  Although familiar with violence, the children began to witness it on a much larger scale.  When the Northern troops arrived, the children were often initially frightened of them because of stories they had heard.  They then grew fascinated with them.  If the Union soldiers looted, it was alarming to the children.  Children whose fathers fought for the Union received an elevated sense of pride.  Their fathers became their heroes and liberators.  To keep black men from enlisting, slave owners would often persecute the family's of those who did.

After the war there was a rush of formally enslaved who wanted to formally be married.  Many went in search of their loved ones.  An effort was made by parents to educate their children.  Some slave children found it difficult to leave the familiar lifestyle of slavery after the war was over.  Some who hardly knew their parents were devastated to be claimed by them after they were free.  Young men tended to view the war in more positive terms and young women often looked at it with anxiety on what it would mean for them relationally.  Both sexes were left "with feelings of both loss and gain" (Bardaglio 228).  Most children, despite the losses of previous lives along with the sense of security that accompanied it, were likely overjoyed with their newfound freedom.